Analytical Approaches in the Pharmaceutical Industry

Analytical Approaches in the Pharmaceutical Industry Miracles do happen and chances of happening such events are rare. Scientific discoveries have also seen such miracles. The approach and efforts required in scientific happenings are based on basic principles. The mode of application of these established principles differ from one stream to another stream of scientific disciplines. The principle of chemistry and physics are amalgamated to give rise to number of measuring devices. These devices are further restructured to suit application. Analytical chemistry can be defined as the science and art of determining the composition of materials in terms of their elements or compounds contained1 in it. Qualitative analysis gives useful details from which functional groups, structural features, atomic species or molecular species. Quantitative analysis gives numerical data in units i.e. percentage, parts per million, moles per liter etc. In above two types of analysis, the required data is obtained by measuring a physical property which is characteristically related to respective component of interest i.e. the analyte2. The most important aspect of analysis is quantitative analysis. The techniques of analytical chemist are of vital importance to the drug and pharmaceutical industries. Products are usually complex organic compounds or mixtures. Drugs prepared for human consumption requires strict standards of product quality be established and maintained. In past, methods of biological assay were often the only measure of product activity available. With the advent of modern instrumentation, techniques of analyst became more versatile and less time consuming, and quantitative analysis supplemented and sometimes replaced biological assay. In those instances where it is possible to establish a rigorous correlation between biological activity and chemical composition of product, analysis can be invaluable in controlling manufacturing operations as well as in determination of product purity and activity. It is noted that the progress and advancement of analytical chemistry depends to a greater extent upon an intelligent application of the fundamentals of physical chemistry and close relationship between physical and analytical chemistry. Recent rapid progress in physical methods of analysis, in many instances, resulted from pioneering investigations of scientists, principally physicists. In 1930 Willard recognized the demands being placed on analytical chemistry by rapid industrial progress. A parallel recognition of importance of analytical chemistry to industry occurred in Europe in same year. Churchill states that contribution of the analytical chemist to research program will be most effective if he is given the opportunity to participate while the program is being planned. In 1940s several direct reading quantitative spectrophotometers were reported. In these instruments the emitted spectral energy of certain chosen lines is transformed to a proportional electrical output by photomultiplier tubes. By suitable amplification and with appropriate recording devices, percentages of the constituents present are automatically recorded. The outstanding advantage of such equipment is its ability to reduce the time requirement for performing an analysis. New information made available by combining various tools of analytical chemist, has been described in several articles. The methods of analysis used to solve industrial problems may be classified as:- Fully developed, generally accepted methods of analysis. Generally accepted methods which are adapted to make them suitable for the problem. New methods which must be developed when available ones are not adequate. Industrial analysis is defined as the utilization of chemical and physical techniques for solving problems arising in industry. In some industrial processes it is desirable to obtain a very rapid or continuous analysis of a product or mixture. Considerable progress has been made in developing automatic method of analysis to fulfill this need. While it has not often been possible to automate entire procedures, from sampling to recording of results many examples of partly automated analytical operations can be cited. Factors pertinent to evaluation of analytical methods in each of these groups were discussed in the present section. A method of analysis is standard or accepted only in the sense that a number of analysts have judged it to be adequate for obtaining certain analytical information. Ideally, analyst views the standard method as a â€Å"best approach† rather than an obvious solution. If satisfactory results are obtained the method can be applied to the sample under consideration with some assurance that the experimental procedure is not at fault. The analyst himself should perform this part of work even if future measurements will be carried out by technicians or laboratory assistant. Only by performing the manipulation and observing the reaction can the analyst forming thoroughly acquainted with the details of an analytical procedure. The advisable method is when it appears to give satisfactory results, include consideration of interfering elements or compounds and determination of blank. While interferences which prevent a method from working properly are readily detected, those which produce a constant error in the analytical result are much more insidious and seldom apparent. Determination of a blank eliminates possible source of constant errors, such as contaminants in reagents and uncorrected background in instrumental measurements. In many standard methods the design and dimensions of the equipment are critical, particularly when properties of material rather than its composition is being studied. Many modification of an analytical method are possible and each problem or sample dictates the changes required to make the method effective. In some methods modification involves change in equipment or technique. For example, numerous spectrographic procedures have been developed for analyzing the metallic contaminants or additives in lubricating oils. Methods, which fail or suffer loss in sensitivity when certain interferences are present, may sometimes, need to be modified by introducing an additional step in the procedure which eliminates or deactivates the interfering element. Once a procedure has been adapted to a particular problem it may be evaluated in the same manner as a standard method. The usual precautions related to proper manipulation and standardizations, avoiding contamination and blank determinations must be observed. When problem is confronted which cannot be solved with established methods of analysis, it becomes necessary for analyst to create and develop new analytical procedures. This situation arises when any or all of the following factors are in effect. The substance sought has not previously been determined, when no methods are now available for all elements. The substance sought is a component of a mixture not previously analyzed. Any other element or compound present in a mixture may invalidate established methods of analysis by interference effects. Sometimes the component producing the interferences can be eliminated and a modified form of the original procedure can be used, as already described. Higher order of sensitivity is required when component sought is present in small quantity (mg). A method capable of analyzing in desired concentration range must be developed. Problems arising in industry are complicated by sample limitations. Often the sample is available in very small amounts and special techniques are required for gaining maximum information from a minimum quantity of material. Analysis must be non-destructive. At times it is required that the sample remain unaltered by the analytical procedure. For example compositional information on an expensive finished product is required, a non-destructive analytical method. Speed or time is critical requirement when conventional methods cannot complete an analysis within a prescribed time requirement, faster methods must be developed. Analytical Chemistry importance in different scientific areas: Importance of analytical chemistry in related scientific areas can be demonstrated by considering analytical chemistry’s impact on clinical analysis, and in pharmaceutical research and in quality control. Sensitive chemical and instrumental tests were advised in order to detect abnormal and normal components of body fluids. Blood and urine samples are determined for percentage of glucose, urea, nitrogen, protein, sodium, potassium, calcium, uric acid etc. Similarly, the quality of manufactured drug in tablets, solution and emulsion form must be carefully controlled in pharmaceutical industry, otherwise the drug can itself affect the therapeutic value. In other pharmaceutical studies, it is important to establish properties and therapeutic value of a drug before the drug is approved and made available to the public. Analytical Techniques: Few of medicinal products were still being analyzed by time-tested procedures of gravimetric and also titrimetric procedures. A wide diversity in different type of analytical techniques has been characteristic of assay methods for pharmaceutical products. Different analytical techniques were been employed for estimation of wide variety of components in the formulation:- Titrimetric and gravimetric method Colorimetric and UV spectrophotometric method Paper chromatography Preparative thin layer chromatography Column chromatography Ion-exchange chromatography Flame photometry and atomic absorption spectrometry. Variables in Quantitative Analysis: Inhomogeneity of the medicament Sampling error Preparation of samples such as extraction Precision, accuracy and ruggedness of the method Random error including that of the operator. Newer Analytical Techniques: As technology is developing, a number of new drugs are launched in the market and it is essential to develop new methods of analysis. It is necessary to do if; No analytical methods are available for a drug in official books such as pharmacopoeias. No literature reveals methods for estimation of drugs. Analytical method available only for single drug in a combined form of drug. No method reported for the estimation in biological fluids. NEED OF ANALYTICAL APPROACHES IN PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY The pharmaceutical industry has always had in place a series of process controls which assures the integrity of the end product. â€Å"A simple way of looking at it is that the Food Drugs Act Regulations are merely an auditing mechanism to quantify that industry has sufficient process controls and documented procedures in place to ensure they are in complete control of every aspect related to drug manufacturing,† There are in essence, three pillars to drug manufacturing and distribution: 1. Quality Assurance (QA) 2. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) 3. Quality Control (QC) Quality Assurance is ensuring that you get what you pay for. It is the insurance policy for the manufacturer.† As a brief overview, the GMPs are part of Quality Assurance and ensure that drugs are produced consistently and are controlled at each and every step. QC is a part of Good Manufacturing Practices and is responsible for sampling and also for testing. It examines and ensures that all aspects of product from raw materials and integrity of the product itself to the packaging materials and insert, meet their specifications. It encompasses testing of the end product and all of its primary ingredients. QA covers documentation of all of the procedures that have taken place from start to finish of entire process. This, in combination with QCs sampling and testing, allows QA to ensure products integrity, purity and potency have not been compromised and it has satisfied all requirements. When QA is completed and satisfactory, the final step is permitted allowing a product to be r eleased for sale to the consumer. But, their job doesn’t stop here. Since Quality Assurance is responsible for assuring that final product is meeting quality, consistency and integrity for its intended use, it must also account for when the product leaves the manufacturing site. Thus, QA is also responsible for ensuring that appropriate arrangements have been made with distributors and warehouses to guarantee that the product is handled, stored and shipped in such a way that its quality is maintained for the duration of its approved shelf life. The overall time required for development of a pharmaceutical from Discovery Research through to the Regulatory Review Phase. There is clear evidence that this can in some cases take upwards of 15 years with costs reaching into millions of dollars. With this level of Research and Development investment, the industry has no intention of allowing a breakdown in final stages of manufacturing and distribution process. Therefore, before a product actually reaches market, QA involvement is also the key in the registration dossier preparation. A portion of this dossier contains a Master Production Document (MPD) which outlines exactly how the product will be manufactured. Within this MPD, a manufacturer defines clear specifications for all raw materials, packaging materials, in-process and finished product along with the sampling procedures and also Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) related to critical processing. The issuing of a Notice of Compliance and a Drug Identification Number are contingent on a complete and acceptable Master Production Document. Then manufacturing license holders are also responsible for conducting an annual self-inspection and documenting their procedures and processes are in compliance with the requirements of the GMPs. If the manufactured product is stored in bottles (syrups), fabricating, packaging/labeling, importation, distribution, wholesale (Schedule C, D, F or G products) or testing of pharmaceutical products must first hold an Establishment License issued by Government. PRESENT STUDY: Development of new drugs, drug manufacturing is dependent on drug analysis. Pharmaceutical companies depend upon drug analysis quantitatively to conform that the raw materials used, in-process compounds and final products manufactured were meeting the required specifications. New drug formulations and new drugs were introduced into the market at increased pace compared to earlier days, as the technology is developed. These formulations and drugs were either new chemical entities or partial structural modifications of existing drugs or new dosage forms. Frequently, it happens that the new drugs inclusion in pharmacopoeias will be delayed because of several reasons. Hence these standards or the analytical methods for these drugs may not be available in pharmacopoeias. Hence it is essential to develop new methods of analysis for these drugs. Based on this, few combinations were selected for the present studies which were currently marketed from Anti Hypertensives17-22, Anti HIV23-35 and Non Steroidal Anti Inflammatory Drugs36-47. Amlodipine Besylate Telmisartan Lamivudine Zidovudine Thiocolchicoside Etoricoxib Literature survey was performed extensively and it was found that spectrophotometric methods were reported and also HPLC methods were reported for the determination of these drugs from their biological fluids. However, there were no reports found for their quantitation by HPLC methods from their formulations. Hence it is essential to develop newer rapid analytical methods3-16 on HPLC.

Last Sacrifice Chapter Fourteen

THE KEEPERS HAD MIXED REACTIONS to us leaving. They were usually glad to see outsiders go, especially since we had Sydney with us. But after the fight, they held me up as some kind of superhero and were enchanted by the idea of me marrying into their â€Å"family.' Seeing me in action meant some of the women were beginning to eye Dimitri now too. I wasn't in the mood to watch them flirt with him–especially since, according to their courtship rules, I would apparently have to be the one to battle it out with any prospective fiancee. Naturally, we didn't tell the Keepers our exact plans, but we did mention we'd likely be encountering Strigoi–which caused quite a reaction. Most of that reaction was excitement and awe, which continued to boost our reputations as fierce warriors. Angeline's response, however, was totally unexpected. â€Å"Take me with you,' she said, grabbing a hold of my arm, just as I started down the forest path toward the car. â€Å"Sorry,' I said, still a little weirded out after her earlier hostility. â€Å"We have to do this alone.' â€Å"I can help! You beat me †¦ but you saw what I can do. I'm good. I could take a Strigoi.' For all her fierceness, I knew Angeline didn't have a clue about what she'd be facing if she ever met an actual Strigoi. The few Keepers who bore molnijamarks spoke little about the encounters, faces grave. They understood. Angeline didn't. She also didn't realize that any novice at St. Vladimir's in the secondary school could probably take her out. She had raw potential, true, but it needed a lot of work. â€Å"You might be able to,' I said, not wanting to hurt her feelings. â€Å"But it's just not possible for you to come with us.' I would have lied and given her a vague â€Å"Maybe sometime,' but since that had led Joshua to thinking we were semi-engaged, I decided I'd better not. I expected more boasts about her battle prowess. We'd learned she was regarded as one of the best young fighters in the compound, and with her pretty looks, she had plenty of admirers too. A lot of it had gone to her head, and she liked to talk about how she could beat anyone or anything up. Again, I was reminded of Jill. Jill also had a lot to learn about the true meaning of battle but was still eager to jump in. She was quieter and more cautious than Angeline, though, so Angeline's next direction caught me off guard. â€Å"Please. It's not just the Strigoi! I want to see the world. I need to see something else outside of this place!' Her voice was pitched low, out of the range of the others. â€Å"I've only been to Rubysville twice, and they say that's nothing compared to other cities.' â€Å"It's not,' I agreed. I didn't even consider it a city. â€Å"Please,' she begged again, this time her voice trembling. â€Å"Take me with you.' Suddenly, I felt sad for her. Her brother had also shown a little longing for the outside world, but nothing like this. He'd joked that electricity would be nice, but I knew he was happy enough without the perks of the modern world. But for Angeline, the situation was much more desperate. I too knew what it was like to feel trapped in one's life and was legitimately sorry for what I had to say. â€Å"I can't, Angeline. We have to go on our own. I'm sorry. I really am.' Her blue eyes shimmered, and she raced off into the woods before I could see her cry. I felt horrible after that and couldn't stop thinking about her as we made our farewells. I was so distracted, I even let Joshua hug me goodbye. Getting back on the road was a relief. I was glad to be away from the Keepers and was ready to spring into action and start helping Lissa. Lexington was our first step. We had a six-hour drive ahead of us, and Sydney, per usual, seemed adamant that no one else was going to drive her car. Dimitri and I made futile protests, finally giving up when we realized that if we were going to be facing Strigoi soon, it was probably best we rest and conserve our strength. The address for Donovan–the Strigoi who allegedly knew Sonya–was only where he could be found at night. That meant we had to make it to Lexington before sunrise, so we wouldn't lose him when he went to his daytime lair. It also meant we'd be meeting Strigoi in the dark. Certain that little would happen on the drive–especially once we were out of West Virginia–Dimitri and I agreed we could doze a little, seeing as neither of us had had a full night's sleep. Even though the lulling of the car was soothing, I drifted in and out of restless sleep. After a few hours of this, I simply settled into the trancelike state that brought me to Lissa. It was a good thing too: I'd stumbled into one of the biggest events facing the Moroi. The nomination process to elect the new king or queen was about to begin. It was the first of many steps, and everyone was excited, given how rare monarch elections truly were. This was an event none of my friends had expected to see anytime soon in our lives, and considering recent events †¦ well, we all had especial interest. The future of the Moroi was at stake here. Lissa was sitting on the edge of a chair in one of the royal ballrooms, a huge sweeping space with vaulted ceilings and gold detailing everywhere. I'd been in this dazzling room before, with its murals and elaborate molding. Chandeliers glittered above. It had held the graduate luncheon, where newly made guardians put on their best faces and hoped to attract a good assignment. Now, the room was arranged like the Council chamber, with a long table on one side of the room that was set with twelve chairs. Opposite that table were rows and rows of other chairs–where the audience sat when the Council was in session. Except, now there were about four times as many chairs as usual, which probably explained the need for this room. Every single chair was filled. In fact, people were even standing, crowding in as best they could. Agitated- looking guardians moved among the herd, keeping them out of doorways and making sure the bystanders were arranged in a way that allowed for optimal s ecurity. Christian sat on one side of Lissa, and Adrian sat beside Christian. To my pleasant surprise, Eddie and Mia sat nearby too. Mia was a Moroi friend of ours who had gone to St. Vladimir's and was nearly as hardcore as Tasha about Moroi needing to defend themselves. My beloved father was nowhere in sight. None of them spoke. Conversation would have been difficult among the buzzing and humming of so many people, and besides, my friends were too awestruck by what was about to happen. There was so much to see and experience, and none of them had realized just how big the crowd would be. Abe had said things would move fast once Tatiana was buried, and they certainly had. â€Å"Do you know who I am?' A loud voice caught Lissa's attention, just barely carrying above the din. Lissa glanced down the row, a few seats away from Adrian. Two Moroi, a man and a woman, sat side by side and were looking up at a very angry woman. Her hands were on her hips, and the pink velvet dress she wore seemed outlandish next to the couple's jeans and T-shirts. It also wasn't going to hold up so well once she stepped outside of air conditioning. A glare twisted her face. â€Å"I am Marcella Badica.' When that didn't get a reaction from the couple, she added, â€Å"Prince Badica is my brother, and our late queen was my third cousin twice removed. There are no seats left, and someone like me cannot stand against the wall with the rest of that mob.' The couple exchanged glances. â€Å"I guess you should have gotten here earlier, Lady Badica,' said the man. Marcella gaped in outrage. â€Å"Didn't you just hear who I am? Don't you know who your betters are? I insist you give up your seats.' The couple still seemed unfazed. â€Å"This session is open to everyone, and there weren't assigned seats, last time I checked,' said the woman. â€Å"We're entitled to ours as much as you are.' Marcella turned to the guardian beside her in outrage. He shrugged. His job was to protect her from threats. He wasn't going to oust others from their chairs, particularly when they weren't breaking any rules. Marcella gave a haughty â€Å"humph!' before turning sharply and stalking away, no doubt to harass some other poor soul. â€Å"This,' said Adrian, â€Å"is going to be delightful.' Lissa smiled and turned back to studying the rest of the room. As she did, I became aware of something startling. I couldn't tell exactly who was who, but the crowd wasn't composed entirely of royals–as most Council sessions were. There were tons of â€Å"commoners,' just like the couple sitting near my friends. Most Moroi didn't bother with Court. They were out in the world, living their lives and trying to survive while the royals pranced around at Court and made laws. But not today. A new leader was going to be chosen, and that was of interest to all Moroi. The milling and chaos continued for a while until one of the guardians finally declared the room to be at capacity. Those outside were outraged, but their cries were quickly silenced when the guardians closed the doors, sealing off the ballroom. Shortly thereafter, the eleven Council members took their seats, and–to my shock–Adrian's father, Nathan Ivashkov, took the twelfth chair. The Court's herald yelled and called everyone to attention. He was someone who'd been chosen because of his remarkable voice, though I always wondered why they didn't just use a microphone in these situations. More old-world traditions, I supposed. That, and excellent acoustics. Nathan spoke once the room settled down. â€Å"In the absence of our beloved queen †¦' He paused looking down mournfully to offer a moment of respect before continuing. In anyone else, I might have suspected his feelings were faked, particularly after seeing him grovel so much in front of Tatiana. But, no. Nathan had loved his prickly aunt as much as Adrian had. â€Å"And in the wake of this terrible tragedy, I will be moderating the upcoming trials and elections.' â€Å"What'd I tell you?' muttered Adrian. He had no fuzzy affection for his father. â€Å"De- lightful.' Nathan droned on a bit about the importance of what was to come and some other points about Moroi tradition. It was obvious, though, that like me, everyone in the room really wanted to get down to the main event: the nominations. He seemed to realize that too and sped up the formalities. Finally, he got to the good stuff. â€Å"Each family, if they choose, may have one nominee for the crown who will take the tests all monarchs have endured since the beginning of time.' I thought that â€Å"beginning of time' part was a bold and probably unverified exaggeration, but whatever. â€Å"The only exclusion is the Ivashkovs, since back-to-back monarchs from the same family aren't allowed. For candidacy, three nominations are required from Moroi of royal blood and proper age.' He then added some stuff about what happened in the event more than one person was nominated from the same family, but even I knew the chances of that happening were non-existent. Each royal house wanted to get the best advantage here, and that would involve a unified standing behind one candidate. Satisfied everyone understood, Nathan nodded and gestured grandly to the audience. â€Å"Let the nominations begin.' For a moment, nothing happened. It kind of reminded me of when I'd been back in school, when a teacher would say something like, â€Å"Who'd like to present their paper first?' Everyone kind of waited for someone else to get things going, and at last, it happened. A man I didn't recognize stood up. â€Å"I nominate Princess Ariana Szelsky.' Ariana, as princess, sat on the Council and was an expected choice. She gave a gracious nod to the man. A second man, presumably from their family, also stood and gave the second nomination. The third and final nomination came from another Szelsky–a very unexpected one. He was Ariana's brother, a world traveler who was almost never at Court, and also the man my mother guarded. Janine Hathaway was most likely in this room, I realized. I wished Lissa would look around and find her, but Lissa was too focused on the proceedings. After everything I'd been through, I suddenly had a desperate longing to see my mother. With three nominations, Nathan declared, â€Å"Princess Ariana Szelsky is entered as a candidate.' He scrawled something on a piece of paper in front of him, his motions full of flourish. â€Å"Continue.' After that, the nominations came in rapid succession. Many were princes and princesses, but others were respected–and still high-ranking–members of the families. The Ozera candidate, Ronald, was not the family's Council member, nor was he anyone I knew. â€Å"He's not one of Aunt Tasha's â€Å"ideal' candidates,' Christian murmured to Lissa. â€Å"But she admits he's not a moron.' I didn't know much about most of the other candidates either. A couple, like Ariana Szelsky, I had a good impression of. There were also a couple I'd always found appalling. The tenth candidate was Rufus Tarus, Daniella's cousin. She'd married into the Ivashkovs from the Tarus family and seemed delighted to see her cousin declared a nominee. â€Å"I don't like him,' said Adrian, making a face. â€Å"He's always telling me to do something useful with my life.' Nathan wrote down Rufus's name and then rolled up the paper like a scroll. Despite the appearance of antique customs, I suspected a secretary in the audience was typing up everything being said here on a laptop. â€Å"Well,' declared Nathan, â€Å"that concludes–‘ â€Å"I nominate Princess Vasilisa Dragomir.' Lissa's head jerked to the left, and through her eyes, I recognized a familiar figure. Tasha Ozera. She'd stood and spoken the words loudly and confidently, glancing around with those ice-blue eyes as if daring anyone to disagree. The room froze. No whispers, no shifting in chairs. Just utter and complete silence. Judging from the faces, the Ozera family's nominee was the second-most astonished person in the room to hear Tasha speak. The first, of course, was Lissa herself. It took a moment for Nathan to get his mouth working. â€Å"That's not–‘ Beside Lissa, Christian suddenly stood up. â€Å"I second the nomination.' And before Christian had even sat down, Adrian was on his feet. â€Å"I confirm the nomination.' All eyes in the room were on Lissa and her friends, and then, as one, the crowd turned toward Nathan Ivashkov. Again, he seemed to have trouble finding his voice. â€Å"That,' he managed at last, â€Å"is not a legal nomination. Due to its current Council standing, the Dragomir line is regrettably not eligible to present a candidate.' Tasha, never afraid of talking in a crowd or taking on impossible odds, leapt back up. I could tell she was eager to. She was good at making speeches and challenging the system. â€Å"Monarch nominees don't need a Council position or quorum to run for the throne.' â€Å"That makes no sense,' said Nathan. There were mutters of agreement. â€Å"Check the law books, Nate–I mean, Lord Ivashkov.' Yes, there he was at last. My tactful father had joined the conversation. Abe had been leaning against a wall near the doorway, dressed splendidly in a black suit with a shirt and tie that were exactly the same shade of emerald green. My mother stood beside him, the slightest hint of a smile on her face. For a moment, I was captivated as I studied them side by side. My mother: the perfect picture of guardian excellence and decorum. My father: always capable of achieving his goals, no matter how twisted the means. Uneasily, I began to understand how I'd inherited my bizarre personality. â€Å"Nominees have no requirements concerning how many people are in their family,' continued Abe jovially. â€Å"They only need three royal nominations to be confirmed.' Nathan gestured angrily toward where his own wayward son and Christian sat. â€Å"They aren't from her family!' â€Å"They don't need to be,' countered Abe. â€Å"They just need to be from a royal family. They are. Her candidacy is within the law–so long as the princess accepts.' All heads swiveled toward Lissa now, as though they were suddenly just noticing her. Lissa hadn't twitched since the startling events began. She was in too much shock. Her thoughts seemed to move both fast and slow. Part of her couldn't even start to process what was happening around her. The rest of her mind was spinning with questions. What was going on? Was this a joke? Or maybe a spirit-induced hallucination? Had she finally gone crazy? Was she dreaming? Was it a trick? If so, why would her own friends have been the ones to do it? Why would they do this to her? And for the love of God, would everyone stop staring at her? She could handle attention. She'd been born and raised for it, and like Tasha, Lissa could address a crowd and make bold statements–when she supported them and was prepared. Neither of those things applied to this situation. This was pretty much the last thing in the world she had expected or wanted. And so, she couldn't bring herself to react or even consider a response. She stayed where she was, silent and shell- shocked. Then, something snapped her from her trance. Christian's hand. He'd taken Lissa's, wrapping his fingers with hers. He gave her a gentle squeeze, and the warmth and energy he sent brought her back to life. Slowly, she looked around the room, meeting the eyes of those all watching her. She saw Tasha's determined gaze, my father's cunning look, and even my mother's expectation. That last one proved most startling of all. How could Janine Hathaway–who always did what was right and could barely crack a joke–be going along with this? How could any of Lissa's friends be going along with this? Didn't they love and care about her? Rose, she thought. I wish you were here to tell me what to do. Me too. Damned one-way bond. She trusted me more than anyone else in the world, but she realized then that she trusted all of these friends too–well, except maybe Abe, but that was understandable. And if they were doing this, then surely–surely–there was a reason, right? Right? It made no sense to her, yet Lissa felt her legs move as she rose to her feet. And despite the fear and confusion still running through her, she found her voice inexplicably clear and confident as it rang out through the room. â€Å"I accept the nomination.'

Ralph Ellison’s “On Bird, Bird-Watching, and Jazz” Essay

Analysis on Ralph Ellison’s â€Å"On Bird, Bird-Watching, and Jazz† Ellison’s purpose in this essay is to prove that â€Å"Parker was a most inventive melodist-a true songster† which is evident in paragraph one. He uses the fascination of nicknames to symbolize the achievements of â€Å"Bird† and the impact the nickname had on others. He adds in a joke near the end of paragraph two, â€Å"why, during a period when most jazzmen were labeled â€Å"cats†, someone hung the bird on Charlie.† to show that even though most jazzmen were called â€Å"cats† at the time, Charles earned the name of â€Å"Bird† because he was above other jazzmen, like a bird would hang high above a cat so the cat couldn’t reach the bird. Charles’s talent was so above all the other â€Å"cats†; they couldn’t even reach his level. In paragraph three Ellison compares the goldfinch to Bird. He uses a short apocryphal story of baby Jesus being given a clay goldfinch for a toy and bringing it to life as a metaphor to indicate that Bird brings jazz music to life. The majority of paragraph three is Ellison going through the species of the goldfinch and how it is characterized, then at the end he hits the reader with the problem of why it does not relate to Bird; it’s like the canary. Paragraph four goes on to show the similarities the mockingbird has that connect it to Bird himself. The sentence structure in paragraph four mimics that of a saxophone holding a long, drawn out note. The sentences are long and drawn out, making the reader have to take a breath in between because the sentences are so long which would happen if a jazzman were playing the saxophone. He is connecting the sound of a saxophone to the sentence structure of the paragraph. The last paragraph also sums up the idea that Bird had a complex life but it didn’t minimize his greatness. All of these strategies bring the reader back to the purpose of the essay which proves that Charles Parker was a â€Å"most inventive melodist-a true songster.†

Review Of Literature Historical Background Of Bullying

Review of Literature Historical Background of Bullying It is alarming that students between the ages of 8 and 18 consider pressure to engage in sexual activity, AIDS, racism, alcohol and drug use to be less problematic than bullying. They consider the latter a far greater problem than the former (Domino, 2013). Bullying has been defined as a subcategory of interpersonal aggression characterized by intentionality, repetition, and imbalance of power, with abuse of power being a primary distinction between bullying and other forms of aggression. Moreover it is a unique but complex form of interpersonal aggression, which takes many forms, serves different functions, and is manifested in different patterns of relationships. Bullying is not simply a dyadic problem between a bully and a victim, but is recognized as a group phenomenon, occurring in a social context in which various factors serve to promote, maintain, and suppress such behavior (Hymel Sweareer, 2015). There seems to be an array of definitions for bullying, but for the most part â€Å"research agrees that bullying is (1) chronic, (2) done with the intention to harm, (3) relational, and (4) is a form of exposure to violence that presents a major threat to healthy development through adolescence (Fitpatrick, Dulin, Piko, 2010).† There are different types of bullying, for instance physical, verbal, relational or social, and cyberbullying. Physical bullying involves harmful actions against another person’s body suchShow MoreRelatedReview Of Literature : Historical Background Of Bullying1564 Words   |  7 PagesCHAPTER TWO Review of Literature Historical Background of Bullying It is alarming that students between the ages of 8 and 18 consider pressure to engage in sexual activity, AIDS, racism, alcohol and drug use to be less problematic than bullying. They consider the latter a far greater problem than the former (Domino, 2013). Bullying has been defined as a subcategory of interpersonal aggression characterized by intentionality, repetition, and imbalance of power, with abuse of power being a primaryRead MoreThe Psychological Impact Of Bullying1366 Words   |  6 Pagespsychological impact of bullying. The purpose of our action research was to attempt to improve students’ academic performance by trying to lessen or eliminate the occurrences of bullying at J.P Eustace Secondary School. The J.P Eustace Secondary School is labelled by the Vincentian public as being an unruly school plagued with many issues and the children are labelled as the worst. After selecting the school we decided to dig a bit deeper into the background of the issue of bullyi ng at the school. ThisRead MoreShould Sex Offenders Be Committed Using Social Media Sites?1540 Words   |  7 Pagesusers in the Treasure Valley. The survey questions will be based on previous research that has shown demonstrating chances of a sexual predator committing a sexual offense while using Facebook. The results from the survey will be compared to the literature research to understand if an average Facebook users participated in the survey have the potential to conduct acts similar to an online sexual predator. This is based on analysis from the ICAC (Internet Crimes Against Children) task force statingRead MorePedro and Me by Judd Winick Essay1771 Words   |  8 Pagesto overcome it. â€Å"The format is enticing, with images that are effusive and alive on the page†¦[while] teaching some urgent lessons.† (Kirkus Reviews). Judd Winick’s Pedro and Me, conveys information about being gay, living with HIV/AIDS, and how to prevent it, more effectively than ot her narrative forms through strong visuals, compelling language, and historical accuracy. Pedro and Me is historically accurate because it displays information about AIDS and the characters that can be historically provenRead MoreThe Social Model And How Stigma Can Be Used As The Framework For Explaining Discrimination2984 Words   |  12 Pageswith learning difficulties The purpose of this literature review is to provide an informative background to the reader on previous research and writings in the area. Deliver an outline of important ideas and recognize similarities or differences. Historically cases like Brent Martin and Fiona pilkinton demonstrate that great change is needed to tackle discrimination. But more recently the case of Joshua Davies a bullied teen from Pontypridd. This review will focus on discrimination in the form ofRead MoreThe Intersection Of Race And Sex : A Concept Analysis2874 Words   |  12 Pagesrace, age, sexual identity, ability, ethnicity, religion, geographic location, education and socio-economic status among others. Although Crenshaw (1989) may have coined the term intersectionality, the concept was not new. One famous historical example of intersectionality(Bowleg, 2012) is found in Soujourner Truth’s 1851 speech presented to the Women’s Convention in Akron, Ohio. Truth starts with â€Å"twixt the negroes of the South, and the women at the North, all talking about right, theRead MoreRaising Achievement of Ethnic Minority Children3671 Words   |  15 PagesRAISING ACHIEVEMENT OF ETHNIC MINORITY PUPILS ABSTRACT This literature review would explore the barriers in raising educational achievements of ethnic minority students. As this is a broad area of concern the literature would examine two main barriers such as social background issues and English as Additional Language (EAL) while briefly looking at other barriers such as†¦ Statistical data collected from the Pupil Level Annual School Census (PLASC) 2002 would be analysed in respect to this groupRead MoreThe Emergence Of Solution Focused Brief Therapy2413 Words   |  10 Pagesinstead of prolonging the process in search of hidden truths. While de Shazer presented an alternative thought process to the therapeutic process, his model was the culmination of various therapist and models continuing to push the envelope. Historical Background The American psychiatrist, Milton Erickson had been credited as one of the pioneers for stepping away from conventional thinking. He suggested therapy must be intensive and required a long-term commitment. In fact, his stance of successfulRead MoreHow Can Storytelling Improve Communication Skills in a 4 Yr Old5438 Words   |  22 Pagesresult her vocabulary is limited. Many young children lack vital experiences in background knowledge that develop vocabulary and other important concepts for learning (Zill Collins, 2000). Sarah plays with her toys and looks at television regularly. Her grandfather died about one month ago but she often remembers him and once drew her mummy and her crying for grandpa. (See appendix E). Sarah is of East Indian background and is the only child for her parents. Her mother works from Monday to SaturdayRead MoreSports and Fitness Center3819 Words   |  16 PagesCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION/ BACKGROUND â€Å"Sport means all forms of physical activity which, through casual and organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels.† Despite the volume of evidence indicating the benefits of sports and regular physical activity for health and functioning, people with disabilities are far less likely to engage Review Of Literature Historical Background Of Bullying CHAPTER TWO Review of Literature Historical Background of Bullying It is alarming that students between the ages of 8 and 18 consider pressure to engage in sexual activity, AIDS, racism, alcohol and drug use to be less problematic than bullying. They consider the latter a far greater problem than the former (Domino, 2013). Bullying has been defined as a subcategory of interpersonal aggression characterized by intentionality, repetition, and imbalance of power, with abuse of power being a primary distinction between bullying and other forms of aggression. Moreover it is a unique but complex form of interpersonal aggression, which takes many forms, serves different functions, and is manifested in different patterns of relationships. Bullying is not simply a dyadic problem between a bully and a victim, but is recognized as a group phenomenon, occurring in a social context in which various factors serve to promote, maintain, and suppress such behavior (Hymel Sweareer, 2015). There seems to be an array of definitions for bullying, but for the most part â€Å"research agrees that bullying is (1) chronic, (2) done with the intention to harm, (3) relational, and (4) is a form of exposure to violence that presents a major threat to healthy development through adolescence (Fitpatrick, Dulin, Piko, 2010).† There are different types of bullying, for instance physical, verbal, relational or social, and cyberbullying. Physical bullying involves harmful actions against anotherShow MoreRelatedReview Of Literature : Historical Background Of Bullying1302 Words   |  6 PagesReview of Literature Historical Background of Bullying It is alarming that students between the ages of 8 and 18 consider pressure to engage in sexual activity, AIDS, racism, alcohol and drug use to be less problematic than bullying. They consider the latter a far greater problem than the former (Domino, 2013). Bullying has been defined as a subcategory of interpersonal aggression characterized by intentionality, repetition, and imbalance of power, with abuse of power being a primary distinctionRead MoreThe Psychological Impact Of Bullying1366 Words   |  6 Pagespsychological impact of bullying. The purpose of our action research was to attempt to improve students’ academic performance by trying to lessen or eliminate the occurrences of bullying at J.P Eustace Secondary School. The J.P Eustace Secondary School is labelled by the Vincentian public as being an unruly school plagued with many issues and the children are labelled as the worst. After selecting the school we decided to dig a bit deeper into the background of the iss ue of bullying at the school. ThisRead MoreShould Sex Offenders Be Committed Using Social Media Sites?1540 Words   |  7 Pagesusers in the Treasure Valley. The survey questions will be based on previous research that has shown demonstrating chances of a sexual predator committing a sexual offense while using Facebook. The results from the survey will be compared to the literature research to understand if an average Facebook users participated in the survey have the potential to conduct acts similar to an online sexual predator. This is based on analysis from the ICAC (Internet Crimes Against Children) task force statingRead MorePedro and Me by Judd Winick Essay1771 Words   |  8 Pagesto overcome it. â€Å"The format is enticing, with images that are effusive and alive on the page†¦[while] teaching some urgent lessons.† (Kirkus Reviews). Judd Winick’s Pedro and Me, conveys information about being gay, living with HIV/AIDS, and how to prevent it, more effecti vely than other narrative forms through strong visuals, compelling language, and historical accuracy. Pedro and Me is historically accurate because it displays information about AIDS and the characters that can be historically provenRead MoreThe Social Model And How Stigma Can Be Used As The Framework For Explaining Discrimination2984 Words   |  12 Pageswith learning difficulties The purpose of this literature review is to provide an informative background to the reader on previous research and writings in the area. Deliver an outline of important ideas and recognize similarities or differences. Historically cases like Brent Martin and Fiona pilkinton demonstrate that great change is needed to tackle discrimination. But more recently the case of Joshua Davies a bullied teen from Pontypridd. This review will focus on discrimination in the form ofRead MoreThe Intersection Of Race And Sex : A Concept Analysis2874 Words   |  12 Pagesrace, age, sexual identity, ability, ethnicity, religion, geographic location, education and socio-economic status among others. Although Crenshaw (1989) may have coined the term intersectionality, the concept was not new. One famous historical example of intersectionality(Bowleg, 2012) is found in Soujourner Truth’s 1851 speech presented to the Women’s Convention in Akron, Ohio. Truth starts with â€Å"twixt the negroes of the South, and the women at the North, all talking about right, theRead MoreRaising Achievement of Ethnic Minority Children3671 Words   |  15 PagesRAISING ACHIEVEMENT OF ETHNIC MINORITY PUPILS ABSTRACT This literature review would explore the barriers in raising educational achievements of ethnic minority students. As this is a broad area of concern the literature would examine two main barriers such as social background issues and English as Additional Language (EAL) while briefly looking at other barriers such as†¦ Statistical data collected from the Pupil Level Annual School Census (PLASC) 2002 would be analysed in respect to this groupRead MoreThe Emergence Of Solution Focused Brief Therapy2413 Words   |  10 Pagesinstead of prolonging the process in search of hidden truths. While de Shazer presented an alternative thought process to the therapeutic process, his model was the culmination of various therapist and models continuing to push the envelope. Historical Background The American psychiatrist, Milton Erickson had been credited as one of the pioneers for stepping away from conventional thinking. He suggested therapy must be intensive and required a long-term commitment. In fact, his stance of successfulRead MoreHow Can Storytelling Improve Communication Skills in a 4 Yr Old5438 Words   |  22 Pagesresult her vocabulary is limited. Many young children lack vital experiences in background knowledge that develop vocabulary and other important concepts for learning (Zill Collins, 2000). Sarah plays with her toys and looks at television regularly. Her grandfather died about one month ago but she often remembers him and once drew her mummy and her crying for grandpa. (See appendix E). Sarah is of East Indian background and is the only child for her parents. Her mother works from Monday to SaturdayRead MoreSports and Fitness Center3819 Words   |  16 PagesCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION/ BACKGROUND â€Å"Sport means all forms of physical activity which, through casual and organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels.† Despite the volume of evidence indicating the benefits of sports and regular physical activity for health and functioning, people with disabilities are far less likely to engage